1
Chapter 1: Introduction: Matter and Measurement
1.1: The Study of Chemistry
1.2: Classification of Matter
1.3: Properties of Matter
1.4: Units of Measurement
1.5: Uncertainty in Measurement
1.6: Dimensional Analysis
1.E: Matter and Measurement (Exercises)
1.S: Matter and Measurement (Summary)
• 2
Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
2.1: The Atomic Theory of Matter
2.2: The Discovery of Atomic Structure
2.3: The Modern View of Atomic Structure
2.4: Atomic Mass
2.5: The Periodic Table
2.6: Molecules and Molecular Compounds
2.7: Ions and Ionic Compounds
2.8: Naming Inorganic Compounds
2.9: Some Simple Organic Compounds
2.E: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Exercises)
2.S: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Summary)
• 3
Chapter 3: Stoichiometry: Chemical Formulas and Equations
3.1: Chemical Equations
3.2: Some Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity
3.3: Formula Masses
3.4: Avogadro's Number and the Mole
3.5: Empirical Formulas from Analysis
3.6: Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations
3.7: Limiting Reactants
3.E: Stoichiometry (Exercises)
3.S: Stoichiometry (Summary)
• 4
Chapter 4: Reactions in Aqueous Solution
4.1: General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
4.2: Precipitation Reactions
4.3: Acid-Base Reactions
4.4: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
4.5: Concentration of Solutions
4.6: Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis
4.E: Reactions in Aqueous Solution (Exercises)
4.S: Reactions in Aqueous Solution (Summary)
• 5
Chapter 5: Thermochemistry
5.1: The Nature of Energy
5.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
5.3: Enthalpy
5.4: Enthalpy of Reaction
5.5: Calorimetry
5.6: Hess's Law
5.7: Enthalpies of Formation
5.8: Foods and Fuels
5.E: Thermochemistry (Exercises)
5.S: Thermochemistry (Summary)
• 6
Chapter 6: Electronic Structure of Atoms
6.1: The Wave Nature of Light
6.2: Quantized Energy and Photons
6.3: Line Spectra and the Bohr Model
6.4: The Wave Behavior of Matter
6.5: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals
6.6: 3D Representation of Orbitals
6.7: Many-Electron Atoms
6.8: Electron Configurations
6.9: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
6.E: Electronic Structure of Atoms (Exercises)
6.S: Electronic Structure of Atoms (Summary)
• 7
Chapter 7: Periodic Properties of the Elements
7.1: Development of the Periodic Table
7.2: Effective Nuclear Charge
7.3: Sizes of Atoms and Ions
7.4: Ionization Energy
7.5: Electron Affinities
7.6: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
7.7: Group Trends for the Active Metals
7.8: Group Trends for Selected Nonmetals
7.E: Periodic Properties of the Elements (Exercises)
7.S: Periodic Properties of the Elements (Summary)
• 8
Chapter 8: Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding
8.1: Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and the Octet Rule
8.2: Ionic Bonding
8.3: Covalent Bonding
8.4: Bond Polarity and Electronegativity
8.5: Drawing Lewis Structures
8.6: Resonance Structures
8.7: Exceptions to the Octet Rule
8.8: Strength of Covalent Bonds
8.E: Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding (Exercises)
8.S: Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding (Summary)
• 9
Chapter 9: Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
9.1: Molecular Shapes
9.2: The VSEPR Model
9.3: Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity
9.4: Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap
9.5: Hybrid Orbitals
9.6: Multiple Bonds
9.7: Molecular Orbitals
9.8: Second-Row Diatomic Molecules
9.E: Exercises
9.S: Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories (Summary)
• 10
Chapter 10: Gases
10.1: Characteristics of Gases
10.2: Pressure
10.3: The Gas Laws
10.4: The Ideal Gas Equation
10.5: Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equations
10.6: Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures
10.7: Kinetic-Molecular Theory
10.8: Molecular Effusion and Diffusion
10.9: Real Gases - Deviations from Ideal Behavior
10.E: Exercises
10.S: Gases (Summary)
• 11
Chapter 11: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces
11.1: A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
11.2: Intermolecular Forces
11.3: Some Properties of Liquids
11.4: Phase Changes
11.5: Vapor Pressure
11.6: Phase Diagrams
11.7: Structure of Solids
11.8: Bonding in Solids
11.E: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Exercises)
11.S: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Summary)
• 12
Chapter 12: Solids and Modern Materials
12.1: Classes of Materials
12.2: Materials for Structure
12.3: Materials for Medicine
12.4: Materials for Electronics
12.5: Materials for Optics
12.6: Materials for Nanotechnology
12.E: Solids and Modern Materials (Exercises)
• 13
Chapter 13: Properties of Solutions
13.1: The Solution Process
13.2: Saturated Solutions and Solubility
13.3: Factors Affecting Solubility
13.4: Ways of Expressing Concentration
13.5: Colligative Properties
13.6: Colloids
13.E: Properties of Solutions (Exercises)
13.S: Properties of Solutions (Summary)
• 14
Chapter 14: Chemical Kinetics
14.1: Factors that Affect Reaction Rates
14.2: Reaction Rates
14.3: Concentration and Rates (Differential Rate Laws)
14.4: The Change of Concentration with Time (Integrated Rate Laws)
14.5: Temperature and Rate
14.6: Reaction Mechanisms
14.7: Catalysis
14.E: Exercises
14.S: Chemical Kinetics (Summary)
• 15
Chapter 15: Chemical Equilibrium
15.1: The Concept of Equilibrium
15.2: The Equilibrium Constant
15.3: Interpreting & Working with Equilibrium Constants
15.4: Heterogeneous Equilibria
15.5: Calculating Equilibrium Constants
15.6: Applications of Equilibrium Constants
15.7: Le Châtelier's Principle
15.E: Exercises
15.S: Chemical Equilibrium (Summary)
• 16
Chapter 16: Acid–Base Equilibria
16.1: Acids and Bases: A Brief Review
16.2: Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases
16.3: The Autoionization of Water
16.4: The pH Scale
16.5: Strong Acids and Bases
16.6: Weak Acids
16.7: Weak Bases
16.8: Relationship Between KaKa and KbKb
16.9: Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions
16.10: Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure
16.11: Lewis Acids and Bases
16.E: Acid–Base Equilibria (Exercises)
16.S: Acid–Base Equilibria (Summary)
• 17
Chapter 17: Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria
17.1: The Common-Ion Effect
17.2: Buffered Solutions
17.3: Acid-Base Titrations
17.4: Solubility Equilibria
17.5: Factors that Affect Solubility
17.6: Precipitation and Separation of Ions
17.7: Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements
17.E: Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria (Exercises)
17.S: Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria (Summary)
• 18
Chapter 18: Chemistry of the Environment
18.1: Earth's Atmosphere
18.2: Outer Regions of the Atmosphere
18.3: Ozone in the Upper Atmostphere
18.4: Chemistry of the Troposphere
18.5: The World Ocean
18.6: Fresh Water
18.7: Green Chemistry
18.E: Chemistry of the Environment (Exercises)
• 19
Chapter 19: Chemical Thermodynamics
19.1: Spontaneous Processes
19.2: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
19.3: The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy
19.4: Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions
19.5: Gibbs Free Energy
19.6: Free Energy and Temperature
19.7: Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
19.E: Chemical Thermodynamics (Exercises)
• 20
Chapter 20: Electrochemistry
20.1: Oxidation States & Redox Reactions
20.2: Balanced Oxidation-Reduction Equations
20.3: Voltaic Cells
20.4: Cell Potential Under Standard Conditions
20.5: Gibbs Energy and Redox Reactions
20.6: Cell Potential Under Nonstandard Conditions
20.7: Batteries and Fuel Cells
20.8: Corrosion
20.9: Electrolysis
20.E: Electrochemistry (Exercises)
• 21
Chapter 21: Nuclear Chemistry
21.1: Radioactivity
21.2: Patterns of Nuclear Stability
21.3: Nuclear Transmutations
21.4: Rates of Radioactive Decay
21.6: Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions
21.7: Nuclear Fission
21.8: Nuclear Fusion
21.9: Biological Effects of Radiation
21.E: Exercises
21.S: Nuclear Chemistry (Summary)
• 22
Chapter 22: Chemistry of the Nonmetals
22.1: General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Reactions
22.2: Hydrogen
22.3: Group 18: Nobel Gases
22.4: Group 17: The Halogens
22.5: Oxygen
22.6: The Other Group 16 Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
22.7: Nitrogen
22.8: The Other Group 15 Elements: P, AS, Sb, and Bi
22.9: Carbon
22.10: The Other Group 14 Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
22.11: Boron
22.E: Chemistry of the Nonmetals (Exercises)
22.S: Chemistry of the Nonmetals (Summary)
• 23
Chapter 23: Metals and Metallurgy
23.1: Occurance and Distribution of Metals
23.2: Pyrometallurgy
23.3: Hydrometallurgy
23.4: Electrometallurgy
23.5: Metallic Bonding
23.6: Alloys
23.7: Transition Metals
23.8: Chemistry of Selected Transition Metals
23.E: Metals and Metallurgy (Exercises)
• 24
Chapter 24: Chemistry of Coordination Chemistry
24.1: Metal Complexes
24.2: Ligands with more than one Donor Atom
24.3: Nomenclature of Coordination Chemistry
24.4: Isomerization
24.5: Color and Magnetism
24.6: Crystal Field Theory
24.E: Chemistry of Coordination Chemistry (Exercises)
• 25
Chapter 25: Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry
25.1: General Characteristics of Organic Molecules
25.2: Introduction to Hydrocarbons
25.3: Alkanes
25.4: Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
25.5: Functional Groups
25.6: Compounds with a Carbonyl Group
25.7: Chirality in Organic Chemistry
25.8: Introduction to Biochemistry
25.9: Proteins
25.10: Carbohydrates
25.11: Nucleic Acids
25.E: Organic and Biological Chemistry (Exercises)
25.S: Organic and Biological Chemistry (Summary)
• Homework
1.E: Matter and Measurement (Exercises)
2.E: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Exercises)
3.E: Stoichiometry (Exercises)
4.E: Aqueous Reactions (Exercises)
5.E: Thermochemistry (Exercises)
6.E: Electronic Structure (Exercises)
7.E: Periodic Trends (Exercises)
8.E: Chemical Bonding Basics (Exercises)
9.E: Bonding Theories (Exercises)
10.E: Gases (Exercises)
11.E: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Exercises)
12.E. Solids and Modern Materials (Exercises)
13.E: Properties of Solutions (Exercises)
14.E: Kinetics (Exercises)
15.E: Chemical Equilibrium (Exercises)
16.E: Acid–Base Equilibria (Exercises)
17.E: Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria (Exercises)
18.E: Chemistry of the Environment (Exercises)
19.E: Chemical Thermodynamics (Exercises)
20.E: Electrochemistry (Exercises)
21.E: Nuclear Chemistry (Exercises)
22.E: Chemistry of the Nonmetals (Exercises)
23.E: Metals and Metallurgy (Exercises)
24.E: Chemistry of Coordination Chemistry (Exercises)
25.E: Organic and Biological Chemistry (Exercises)
En este capítulo se explica un tema central en la química: el modo en que se ordenan los electrones en un átomo. A su vez, descubrirá cómo la forma de la tabla periódica refleja las disposiciones electrónicas de los elementos, y en consecuencia, permite comprender sus propiedades. Finalizado el capítulo, conocerás lo suficiente acerca de estructura electrónica de átomos para explicar qué causa los colores característicos de los letreros de neón, cómo se crean los rayos láser y por qué las piedras preciosas y los fuegos artificiales tienen colores tan brillantes. En capítulos posteriores, se profundiza los conceptos aquí presentados para explicar por qué el único compuesto formado por sodio y cloro es \(\ce{NaCl}\), un compuesto iónico, mientras que el neón y el argón no forman compuestos estables, y por qué el carbono y el hidrógeno se combinan para formar casi un sinfín de compuestos covalentes, como \(\ce{CH4}\), \(\ce{C2H2}\), \(\ce{C2H4}\) y \(\ce{C2H6}\). Descubrirás que saber cómo usar la tabla periódica es la habilidad más importante que puede adquirir para comprender la increíble diversidad química de los elementos.
6.1: La naturaleza ondulatoria de la luzComprender la estructura electrónica de átomos requiere comprender las propiedades de ondas. Una onda es una oscilación periódica a través de la cual se transmite energía por el espacio. Todas las ondas son periódicas, repitiéndose regularmente tanto en el espacio como en el tiempo. Las ondas se caracterizan por diversas propiedades interrelacionadas. 6.2: Energía cuantizada y fotonesLa radiación de cuerpo negro es la radiación emitida por objetos a elevada temperatura. No puede explicase en terminos de física clásica. Max Planck postuló que la energía estaba cuantizada y podía ser emitida o absorbida solo en múltiplos enteros de cierta unidad, el cuanto. La energía de un cuanto es proporcional a la frecuencia de la radiación. Albert Einstein utilizó la cuantización de la energpia para explicar el efecto fotoeléctrico. 6.3: Espectro de líneas y Modelo de BohrThere is an intimate connection between the atomic structure of an atom and its spectral characteristics. Most light is polychromatic and contains light of many wavelengths. Light that has only a single wavelength is monochromatic and is produced by devices called lasers, which use transitions between two atomic energy levels to produce light in a very narrow range of wavelengths. Atoms can also absorb light of certain energies, resulting in a transition from the ground state or a lower-energy e 6.4: Comportamiento ondulatorio de la materiaUn electron posee a la vez propiedades de particula y de onda. Louis de Broglie mostro que la longitud de onda de una particula es igual a la constante de Planck dividida por su masa, y multiplicada por la velocidad de la particula. En las orbitas circulares de Bohr, un electron puede describirse como una onda estacionaria, una que no se desplaza por el espacio. El principio de incerteza de Heisenberg establece que es imposible conocer a la vez la posicion y la velocidad de particulas que exhibe 6.E: Electronic Structure of Atoms (Exercises)These are homework exercises to accompany the Textmap created for "Chemistry: The Central Science" by Brown et al. 6.S: Electronic Structure of Atoms (Summary)This is the summary Module for the chapter "Electronic Structure of Atoms" in the Brown et al. General Chemistry Textmap.
Thumbnail: Electron shell diagram for Sodium , the 19th element in the periodic table of elements. Image used with permission (CC BY-SA; 2.5; Pumbaa )